GW501516 is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Last reviewed on 2025-12-14. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
Cardarine is a synthetic compound also known as GW501516, GW-501516, and sometimes endurobol. It was developed as a selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not become a marketed human medicine. In regulatory and anti-doping contexts, it is treated as a prohibited substance rather than a licensed medicine.
The pharmacological interest in cardarine centers on PPARδ activation and its downstream effects on lipid handling and mitochondrial function. In animal studies, PPARδ agonists have been associated with changes in exercise endurance and fatty acid utilization, though results vary by model and protocol. Human data remain sparse, and the absence of large controlled trials limits conclusions about efficacy. Researchers often describe the compound as a tool for probing PPARδ biology rather than a proven therapeutic agent.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid transport, and energy homeostasis. GW501516 binds and activates this receptor with high selectivity relative to PPARα and PPARγ in laboratory assays. Activation alters expression of target genes in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in animal models. The exact clinical consequences of these changes in humans remain incompletely characterized, and observed effects in animals do not establish therapeutic benefit or safety.
Published studies have examined GW501516 in animal models of obesity, insulin resistance, and exercise endurance. Early human trials reportedly ended, and development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in some rodent studies. Regulatory agencies have not approved cardarine for any medical use. Its availability through non-pharmaceutical channels raises questions about identity, purity, and legal status that are separate from its laboratory pharmacology. Those questions are often addressed through analytical testing rather than assumptions about product labels.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common synonyms | GW501516, GW-501516, GW 501516, endurobol | Names vary in research and anti-doping documents. |
| Chemical class | Synthetic PPARδ agonist | Small-molecule nuclear receptor ligand. |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Identifier commonly associated with GW501516. |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical for purified research material. |
| Solubility | Low in water; soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Organic solvents are common for laboratory stock solutions. |
Regulatory bodies treat GW501516 as a prohibited substance in competitive sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency added it to the prohibited list, and it falls under classes covering metabolic modulators and hormone-related agents. It is not approved by drug regulators for human use, and it is not a lawful dietary supplement. Products sold under the cardarine name may contain unlisted ingredients or different compounds. Because no approved product exists, quality and identity are not guaranteed by pharmaceutical manufacturing standards.
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational chemical GW501516, also written GW-1516. It was developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist for metabolic conditions such as dyslipidemia. Early research focused on lipid handling and energy use in skeletal muscle and other tissues. The compound was never approved as a medicine. In public discussion, it is often grouped with performance-enhancing substances, although its receptor target differs from that of anabolic steroids or selective androgen receptor modulators. Regulatory and health authorities have issued warnings about its use.
Cardarine is frequently described as a fat-burning or endurance-enhancing supplement, but these claims exceed the available evidence. The compound is not a hormone, steroid, or selective androgen receptor modulator. Research articles discuss it as a tool compound for studying PPARδ biology, while anti-doping literature focuses on its abuse and detection. Quality of unapproved products is uncertain, and independent analyses have found impurities or incorrect labeling. Open questions include whether human cancer risk resembles that seen in rodents and how often non-athletes use the substance.
Cardarine has no approved therapeutic indication and is not marketed as a medicine. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists GW501516 as a prohibited substance at all times, covering both in-competition and out-of-competition periods. National laws vary: some countries treat it as an unapproved drug subject to import controls, while others have specific restrictions on sale for human consumption. It is often sold as a research chemical, a label that does not imply safety or legality. Enforcement actions have targeted online vendors and shipments.
Since lithium-ion batteries are intercalation batteries, information on the chemistry and electronic structure going on in the bulk during operation are of interest. For this, soft x-ray information can be obtained using hard X-ray Raman scattering. Fixed energy methods (FEXRAV) have been developed and applied to the study of the catalytic cycle for the oxygen evolution reaction on iridium oxide. FEXRAV consists of recording the absorption coefficient at a fixed energy while varying at will the electrode potential in an electrochemical cell during the course of an electrochemical reaction. It allows to obtain a rapid screening of several systems under different experimental conditions (e.g., nature of the electrolyte, potential window), preliminary to deeper XAS experiments. The soft X-Ray regime (i.e. with photon energy < 1000 eV) can be profitably used for investigating heterogeneous solid-gas reaction. In this case, it is proved that XAS can be sensitive both to the gas phase and to the solid surface states.
== Further reading == "New Guidelines Seek to Provide Clarity on Food Expiration Dates". All Things Considered. U.S.: NPR. 17 February 2017. Includes a list of the many terms used in the United States food industry. Anonymous, "Cold Chain Management", 2003, 2006 Anonymous, Protecting Perishable Foods During Transport by Truck Archived 2014-05-16 at the Wayback Machine, USDA Handbook 669, 1995 Kilcast, D., Subramamiam, P., Food and Beverage Stability and Shelf Life, Woodhead Publishing, 2011, ISBN 978-1-84569-701-3 Labuza, T. P., Szybist, L., Open dating of Foods, Food and Nutrition Press, 2001; other edition: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004, ISBN 0-917678-53-2 Man, C. M., Jones. A. A., Shelf-Life Evaluation of Foods, ISBN 0-8342-1782-1 Robertson, G.L., Food Packaging and Shelf Life: A Practical Guide, CRC Press, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4200-7844-2 Steele, R., Understanding and Measuring the Shelf-Life of Food, Woodhead Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-85573-732-9 Weenen, H., Cadwallader, K., Freshness and Shelf Life of Foods, ACS, 2002, ISBN 0-8412-3801-4
NASA spin-off technologies are commercial products and services which have been developed with the help of NASA, through research and development contracts, such as Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) or STTR awards, licensing of NASA patents, use of NASA facilities, technical assistance from NASA personnel, or data from NASA research. Information on new NASA technology that may be useful to industry is available in periodical and website form in "NASA Tech Briefs", while successful examples of commercialization are reported annually in the NASA publication Spinoffs. The publication has documented more than 2,000 technologies over time. In 1979, notable science fiction author Robert A. Heinlein helped bring awareness to the spin-offs when he was asked to appear before Congress after recovering from one of the earliest known vascular bypass operations to correct a blocked artery. In his testimony, reprinted in his 1980 book Expanded Universe, Heinlein claimed that four NASA spin-off technologies made the surgery possible, and that they were only a few from a long list of NASA spin-off technologies from space development. Since 1976, the NASA Technology Transfer Program has connected NASA resources to private industry, referring to the commercial products as spin-offs. Well-known products that NASA claims as spin-offs include memory foam (originally named temper foam), freeze-dried food, firefighting equipment, emergency "space blankets", DustBusters, cochlear implants, LZR Racer swimsuits, and CMOS image sensors.
Informal prescreening: In some cases, countries can introduce controls that function as border controls but are not border controls legally, and do not need to be performed by government agencies. Normally, they are performed and organised by private companies, under a law that requires them to check whether passengers are allowed to travel to a specific country. Such controls can take effect in one country based on the laws of another country, without any formalised border-control prescreening agreement in force. Even if they are not, border controls function as such. The most prominent example is airlines that check passports and visas before passengers are allowed to board. Also, for some passenger boats, such checks are performed before boarding.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
==== Quest for milk substitutes ==== Poorer consumers reliant on local infant formula, which was approximately half the price of imported brands, had been left without alternatives to feed their children. Many had lost faith in local brands, with others unsure of which brands were safe. Supermarket shelves had been swept bare from product recalls. Shops in Hong Kong reported a rush for imported formula from cross-border shoppers, with some retailers reportedly rationing their stocks. Some mainlanders were also reportedly rushing to import infant formula from Kinmen. Wet nurses enjoyed a resurgence in popularity in major cities. Some media reports have documented that Chinese sailors and expatriates have been buying local dairy produce in Australia to send back to relatives in China. It had been estimated in 2018 that up to 80% to 90% of infant formula purchased in Australia was destined for China. Following widespread complaints and appeals by exasperated Australian parents unable to find formula for their children, Coles supermarkets resorted to locking baby formula tins away behind the Service Counter, like tobacco products, in order to regulate their sale. The two major supermarkets, Coles and Woolworths, placed a two item limit on baby formula purchases to curb the growing practice of bulk purchasing by predominantly Chinese customers known as daigou, or "personal shoppers".
==== Cleaved, contracted, and expanded rings ==== Secosteroids (Latin seco, "to cut") are a subclass of steroidal compounds resulting, biosynthetically or conceptually, from scission (cleavage) of parent steroid rings (generally one of the four). Major secosteroid subclasses are defined by the steroid carbon atoms where this scission has taken place. For instance, the prototypical secosteroid cholecalciferol, vitamin D3 (shown), is in the 9,10-secosteroid subclass and derives from the cleavage of carbon atoms C-9 and C-10 of the steroid B-ring; 5,6-secosteroids and 13,14-steroids are similar. Norsteroids (nor-, L. norma; "normal" in chemistry, indicating carbon removal) and homosteroids (homo-, Greek homos; "same", indicating carbon addition) are structural subclasses of steroids formed from biosynthetic steps. The former involves enzymic ring expansion-contraction reactions, and the latter is accomplished (biomimetically) or (more frequently) through ring closures of acyclic precursors with more (or fewer) ring atoms than the parent steroid framework. Combinations of these ring alterations are known in nature. For instance, ewes who graze on corn lily ingest cyclopamine (shown) and veratramine, two of a sub-family of steroids where the C- and D-rings are contracted and expanded respectively via a biosynthetic migration of the original C-13 atom. Ingestion of these C-nor-D-homosteroids results in birth defects in lambs: cyclopia from cyclopamine and leg deformity from veratramine. A further C-nor-D-homosteroid (nakiterpiosin) is excreted by Okinawan cyanobacteriosponges.
In chemistry, there are three definitions in common use of the word "base": Arrhenius bases, Brønsted bases, and Lewis bases. All definitions agree that bases are substances that react with acids, as originally proposed by G.-F. Rouelle in the mid-18th century. In 1884, Svante Arrhenius proposed that a base is a substance which dissociates in aqueous solution to form hydroxide ions OH−. These ions can react with hydrogen ions (H+ according to Arrhenius) from the dissociation of acids to form water in an acid–base reaction. A base was therefore a metal hydroxide such as NaOH or Ca(OH)2. Such aqueous hydroxide solutions were also described by certain characteristic properties. They are slippery to the touch, can taste bitter, and change the color of pH indicators (e.g., turn red litmus paper blue). In water, by altering the autoionization equilibrium, bases yield solutions in which the hydrogen ion activity is lower than it is in pure water, i.e., the water has a pH higher than 7.0 at standard conditions. A soluble base is called an alkali if it contains and releases OH− ions quantitatively. Metal oxides, hydroxides, and especially alkoxides are basic, and conjugate bases of weak acids are weak bases. Bases and acids are seen as chemical opposites because the effect of an acid is to increase the hydronium (H3O+) concentration in water, whereas bases reduce this concentration. A reaction between aqueous solutions of an acid and a base is called neutralization, producing a solution of water and a salt in which the salt separates into its component ions.
Extensive clinical research on almost exclusively LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin was conducted in the 1950s and 1960s. However, the amount of research done on psilocybin was nowhere near that of LSD. Psychedelics like LSD started to become more visible in the mainstream sphere in the 1950s. English writer Aldous Huxley tried mescaline, which he had obtained from English psychiatrist Humphry Osmond, in 1953, and described its effects in his 1954 book The Doors of Perception. British politician Christopher Mayhew tried mescaline in 1955 and this was reported on in the media. Osmond, in correspondence with Huxley, coined the term "psychedelic", meaning "mind-manifesting", in 1956. Al Hubbard, also known as the "Johnny Appleseed of LSD", played a key role in the spread of LSD in the 1950s and thereafter. Psychedelics became widely recreationally used by the public, for instance by the hippies, during the counterculture of the 1960s. Harvard psychologists Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert began studying LSD and psilocybin in the early 1960s and ended up being fired from the university in 1963. Sandoz Laboratories ceased distribution of Delysid in 1965. Psychedelics became controlled substances in the United States and internationally in the 1960s and 1970s. By the end of the 1960s, psychedelic clinical research throughout the world had largely ceased.
In 2013, Middleton and Andy Bell founded boomf, a company that makes personalised marshmallows and greeting cards. Middleton had previously founded Nice Cakes, which specialised in personalised cakes. Bell had previously founded Mint Digital, which created StickyGram (now Sticky9), an Instagram magnet company which sold to PhotoBox. Boomf launched in November 2013 without mentioning Middleton's involvement, to allow for a low profile launch. In January 2014, Boomf announced Middleton's involvement, believing that it would be impossible to keep it secret long-term. In 2014, Boomf raised over $1m and was backed by a number of angel investors, including Nick Jenkins, founder of Moonpig, Duncan Jennings and Matt Wheeler. Boomf shipped 2 tons of marshmallows in its first year and made £100,000 ($168,000) in sales in its first three months. In 2015, the company raised funds at a valuation of £10m. Boomf made a loss of £3 million between 2015 and 2018. In July 2015, Boomf launched a nationwide search for a new marshmallow designer. The winner was Bournemouth University student Izzy Burton. Middleton's brother-in-law, hedge fund manager James Matthews paid Middleton €110,000 for 12,800 Boomf shares. In 2019, Middleton announced that the company had reached profitability with an income of £176,000 in the previous year - and an increase in sales of up to £4.4 million from £2.8 million in the previous year. The company moved into new offices in Reading with circa 20,000 square feet (1,900 m2) to warehouse space.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Stress === A high proportion of patients with an acute stress such as stroke or myocardial infarction may develop hyperglycemia, even in the absence of a diagnosis of diabetes. (Or perhaps stroke or myocardial infarction was caused by hyperglycemia and undiagnosed diabetes.) Human and animal studies suggest that this is not benign, and that stress-induced hyperglycemia is associated with a high risk of mortality after both stroke and myocardial infarction. Somatostatinomas and aldosteronoma-induced hypokalemia can cause hyperglycemia but usually disappears after the removal of the tumour. Stress causes hyperglycaemia via several mechanisms, including through metabolic and hormonal changes, and via increased proinflammatory cytokines that interrupt carbohydrate metabolism, leading to excessive glucose production and reduced uptake in tissues. Hormones such as the growth hormone, glucagon, cortisol, and catecholamines, can cause hyperglycemia when they are present in the body in excess amounts.
==== Copper ==== The antimicrobial mechanisms of copper have been studied for decades and are still under investigation. A summary of potential mechanisms is available here: Antimicrobial properties of copper#Mechanisms of antibacterial action of copper. Researchers today believe that the most important mechanisms include the following:
=== Rich Boyd lawsuit (2006) === In 2006, a lawsuit exposed a possible family disagreement over the chain's corporate leadership. Richard Boyd, one of In-N-Out's vice presidents and co-trustee of two-thirds of the company stock, accused Lynsi Snyder (then known as Lynsi Martinez) and allied corporate executives of trying to force out Esther Snyder and attempting to fire Boyd unreasonably. Pre-empting the suit, Martinez, Snyder, and Taylor appeared in a December video message to employees, telling them not to believe everything they hear. The company then responded with a lawsuit of its own, alleging Boyd had construction work done on his personal property and charged it to the company, as well as favoring contractors with uncompetitive bids. Boyd was then suspended from his role as co-trustee and Northern Trust Bank of California took his place (as co-trustee) until a hearing set for May 10, 2006. However, in April, the judge dismissed two of In-N-Out's claims against Boyd. A trial date of October 17, 2006, was set but never occurred, and a settlement was reached out of court. Ultimately, Boyd was permanently removed from his role as an employee and co-trustee.
Despite this lack of coverage, the law allows so called "greenfield agreements", where employers make an agreement in new workplaces to last up to 4 years (or 8 years for construction projects) without any strike action possible. For instance, in Shop, Distributive & Allied Employees Association v ALDI Foods Pty Ltd, the supermarket chain Aldi made an agreement with 17 prospective employees, ignoring the union, and the High Court said that under section 172 an agreement could be made even though the employees had not begun work. The FWC can make "scope orders" under section 238 on whether employee groups are fairly chosen, given geographical, operational or organisational distinction.
=== Diagnosis === As hemoglobin can be inherited in several conditions, no single diagnostic test can confirm the specific protein completely. Electrophoresis is one of the most commonly used and requires sequential identification with other hemoglobins. All hemoglobins can be separated in cellulose acetate at pH 8.6 and in agarose gel at pH 6.2. In alkaline medium of cellulose acetate, HbD moves slower and can be identified at shorter distance than HbA, but it migrates exactly as HbS. It can be differentiated from HbS in acidic agarose gel in which it moves faster and farther than HbS, but at the same level with HbA. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) can directly detect the protein, but its specific identification of HbD from other hemoglobins can be inconclusive. HPLC coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS) can accurately detect the protein but the procedure is costly and time consuming. Genetic screening can be done with polymerase chain reaction that can identify HbS from other hemoglobin variants.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is an investigational synthetic compound that acts as a PPARδ agonist. It is also known as GW501516 and has been studied mainly in preclinical research. It is not an approved medicine.
No. Cardarine is not a steroid hormone; it targets the nuclear receptor PPARδ. Its classification in anti-doping rules differs from anabolic steroids, though it remains prohibited in sport.
Early rodent studies reported tumor formation at multiple sites, which raised safety concerns. Sponsors stopped clinical development, and no approved human product exists.
Cardarine is commonly known as GW501516 or GW-1516. These names refer to the same synthetic compound. It is not a brand-name approved medicine.