If you have been reading about PPAR delta and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2026-08-01. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Sporting authorities added GW501516 to prohibited lists after it appeared in athlete samples and online markets. The World Anti-Doping Agency classifies it as a hormone and metabolic modulator, and its use can lead to an anti-doping rule violation. Some early laboratory work suggested effects on fatty acid oxidation and endurance-related metabolism in animals, but those findings do not establish safe or effective use in people. Reports of adverse events in humans are scarce and often anecdotal, which complicates risk assessment.
Legal status varies by country. In some places, cardarine is controlled under medicines or psychoactive substances laws; in others, it may be sold with minimal oversight as a research chemical. Customs agencies have intercepted shipments, and several national health agencies have issued warnings about products marketed for bodybuilding or performance enhancement. The lack of a standardized pharmaceutical supply means identity, purity, and contamination levels can differ widely between samples. These factors make cardarine a regulatory and public health concern rather than a conventional prescription drug.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound first described in the 1990s as a selective agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta. It was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it has not been approved as a medicine in the United States, Europe, or other major jurisdictions. Retail products labeled as cardarine are generally research chemicals or supplements, not pharmaceutical formulations. Because human safety and efficacy data remain limited, regulatory agencies treat it as an unapproved substance rather than a therapeutic product.
Clinical development stopped after rodent studies showed tumors at multiple sites. Whether those findings predict human cancer risk remains an open question, but they led sponsors to discontinue programs. Human safety data are limited to small, short-term studies that were not designed to assess cancer risk. Reported effects in those studies included changes in blood lipids, but the evidence is insufficient for medical use. Long-term consequences of nonmedical use are not well characterized. Questions about dose, duration, and individual susceptibility remain unresolved.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| IUPAC name | {4-[({4-methyl-2-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-1,3-thiazol-5-yl}methyl)sulfanyl]phenoxy}acetic acid | Systematic name for GW501516 |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Unique identifier for the parent compound |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Includes carbon, hydrogen, fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur |
| Molecular weight | 453.5 g/mol | Approximate value for the neutral form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical description for purified laboratory material |
The pharmacological interest in cardarine centers on PPARδ activation and its downstream effects on lipid handling and mitochondrial function. In animal studies, PPARδ agonists have been associated with changes in exercise endurance and fatty acid utilization, though results vary by model and protocol. Human data remain sparse, and the absence of large controlled trials limits conclusions about efficacy. Researchers often describe the compound as a tool for probing PPARδ biology rather than a proven therapeutic agent.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
In the fitness and bodybuilding literature, cardarine is frequently discussed as an endurance agent or fat-loss compound, although such claims are not supported by robust clinical evidence. Online descriptions often mix animal data, user anecdotes, and marketing language. Researchers who study PPARδ agonists distinguish between receptor activation in controlled experiments and unsupervised use of unverified products. The latter introduces unknown purity, dose, and interactions, making reported experiences difficult to interpret scientifically.
GW501516 acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in transcription of genes related to lipid handling and energy use. Activation of PPARδ can shift skeletal muscle toward greater fatty acid oxidation in animal models, which is one reason it drew interest for metabolic disease and exercise research. The exact downstream effects depend on tissue, species, dose, and duration. Human data are sparse, so many proposed benefits remain hypotheses rather than established clinical outcomes.
Published human data are sparse and mostly come from early-phase trials. Those studies examined short-term changes in lipids, glucose, and exercise capacity, but they were not large enough to establish efficacy or long-term safety. Some animal experiments reported increased running endurance, yet such findings do not prove a performance benefit in people. Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites in urine or blood using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Detection windows depend on dose, sample type, and individual metabolism. The method is sensitive enough to identify trace residues in tested samples.
Laboratory handling focuses on identity, purity, and stability. Reference standards are typically stored cold and dry, protected from light, because solutions can degrade over time. Analytical checks may use high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection or mass spectrometry. Impurities and related substances can be separated chromatographically and compared with a known standard. Because cardarine is not an approved drug, compendial monographs are absent, and laboratories often rely on in-house methods. Reported purity varies among unregulated products and should not be assumed from a label.
A persistent misconception is that cardarine is a fat-burning drug or a safe alternative to anabolic steroids. No approved therapeutic product exists, and human safety data are limited. The tumor findings in rodents remain a central concern in scientific reviews. Products sold online may contain inaccurate labels, impurities, or different compounds entirely, which complicates any assessment of effects. Independent testing of such products has reported frequent mislabeling. For these reasons, discussions in the literature emphasize risks and unknowns rather than benefits.
Cardarine is not approved for human therapeutic use in any major jurisdiction. It appears on the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List as a PPARδ agonist within the hormone and metabolic modulators category. Sports organizations test for it because it has been detected in athlete samples and seized products. Regulatory actions against marketed research chemical versions have occurred in several countries, though enforcement varies. Availability through unregulated channels complicates oversight.
== Deaths == 2 March - Robert Watkin Wynne, politician, 52? 12 April - Evan Davies, Independent minister, 56 19 September - John Roberts, hymn-writer, 75 October - Gabriel Jones, Welsh American lawyer and politician, 82 4 October - Samuel Horsley, Bishop of St Asaph date unknown Fulke Greville, former MP for Monmouth Boroughs
== Controversies and legal troubles == In June 2016, Bay Area bands Wax Idols and King Woman abruptly ended their tour with Pentagram, citing instances of harassment and unprofessional conduct. Hether Fortune of Wax Idols and Kristina Esfandiari of King Woman stated that they and their bandmates had been "treated really poorly & harassed in gross ways," leading them to withdraw from the tour. Pentagram's management labeled the situation as "unfounded and grossly opportunistic," claiming that after a few nights on tour, the bands "simply disappeared, posted negatively about us on social media, and then headed over to the show that was previously set up for them that very night." In 2017, Liebling was arrested and charged with first-degree assault and physical abuse/injury of a vulnerable adult, later revealed to be his, at the time, 87-year-old mother Diane Liebling. He entered into a plea agreement, resulting in him pleading guilty to the abuse/neglect charge while maintaining his innocence regarding the first-degree assault charge. In October 2017, Liebling was sentenced to eighteen months in the Montgomery County Detention Center and three years of probation upon release. During Liebling's incarceration, Pentagram continued their US tour and performed in Europe without him, with Victor Griffin taking over on vocals. Previously, Liebling had been charged once for violating a restraining order and multiple times for drug possession.
=== Anti-corruption campaigns === Bukele established the International Commission Against Impunity in El Salvador (CICIES) in September 2019, an anti-corruption commission to combat drug trafficking, corruption, and white-collar crimes. CICIES was operated by the Salvadoran government and the Organization of American States (OAS), and cooperated with the National Civil Police to form an anti-corruption unit. Bukele dissolved CICIES in June 2021 after the OAS named Ernesto Muyshondt an anti-corruption advisor; Ernesto Muyshondt was accused by the Salvadoran government of electoral fraud and illegal negotiation with gang members to vote for ARENA during the 2014 presidential election. He was arrested and was scheduled to go on trial in April 2024, despite concerns about his health. On 1 June 2023, during a speech celebrating his fourth year in office, Bukele stated that his government would begin a "war against corruption" ("guerra contra la corrupción"). He announced that he would build a prison for individuals convicted of white-collar crimes that would be similar to the Terrorism Confinement Center. Bukele stated that the police and military would arrest white-collar criminals like they capture gang members in the gang crackdown. He added that Attorney General Rodolfo Delgado was in the process of raiding and confiscating assets worth up to $68 million from former Salvadoran president Alfredo Cristiani as part of the anti-corruption campaign.
Valve modified Alyx's AI to allow her to react to the player. Changes include commentating on objects the player manipulates or obstacles they have overcome. She also acts as an essential device in both plot exposition and directing the player's journey, often vocalizing what the player is required to do next to progress. Valve did not want Alyx to obstruct the player, and sometimes reduced her input and dialogue so players would not feel pressured or bothered by her presence. Valve placed what they described as "hero moments" to allow the player to single-handedly overcome obstacles such as challenging enemies, during which Alyx takes the role of an observer and gives the player praise. The game was extensively playtested so that Valve could gauge its effectiveness and difficulty. Episode One was made with an upgraded version of Source, with more advanced lighting effects and a new version of its facial animation/expression technology. Upgrades to enemy AI allow Combine soldiers to use tactics previously unavailable to them. For example, Combine soldiers were given the ability to crouch while being fired upon so they could duck underneath the player's line of fire. The soundtrack was composed by Kelly Bailey. The music is used sparingly; it plays primarily during scenes of major plot developments or particularly important action sequences, such as large battles or when encountering a new enemy.
δDs of annual precipitation in different regions of the world are shown on the map. The precipitation is more D-enriched near the equator in the Tropics. The δDs generally fall in the range of around −30 ~ −150‰ in the northern hemisphere and −30~+30‰ over land areas of the southern hemisphere. In North America, the δD of average monthly precipitation across regions is lower in January (ranging up to around −300‰ in Canada) than in July (up to around −190‰). The overall mean precipitation is determined by the balance between evaporation of water from the oceans and other surface water and condensation of water vapor in the form of rain. Net evaporation should equal net precipitation, and the δD for precipitation is around −22‰ (global average). The Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation (GNIP) investigates and monitors the isotopic composition of precipitation at various sites all over the world. The mean precipitation can be estimated by the equation, δ2H = 8.17(±0.07) δ18O + 11.27(±0.65)‰ VSMOW. (Rozanski et al., 1993) This equation is the slightly modified version from the general global meteoric water line (GMWL) equation, δ2H = 8.13δ18O + 10.8, which provides the average relationship between δ2H and δ18O of natural terrestrial waters.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Cannabis === Ford supports allowing licensed private retailers to sell cannabis, rather than a government monopoly like the LCBO. Ford opposed the legalization of recreational cannabis. On January 22, 2019, Huffington Post reported that Ford's youngest daughter Kyla, a bodybuilder and fitness trainer, had posted videos promoting health benefits of CBD oil, a cannabis product which typically does not contain the psychoactive compound present in marijuana. Various publications claimed Kyla's promotion wasn't lawful. Ford's daughter took down the posts, but neither Ford nor his daughter commented on them.
== History == GeneDx was founded in 2000 by scientists Sherri Bale and John Compton from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The company was established to provide clinical diagnostic services for patients and families with rare and ultra-rare disorders, for which limited commercial testing options existed at the time. The company started in the Technology Development Center, a biotech incubator supported by the state of Maryland and Montgomery County, MD. In 2006, GeneDx was acquired by BioReference Laboratories and continued to operate as a subsidiary. In October 2016, Benjamin D. Solomon was appointed as managing director. In 2021, Katherine Stueland became CEO of GeneDx. GeneDx was acquired by Sema4 in 2022, and Stueland was named CEO of the combined company. In 2023, the combined company underwent a strategic transformation, refocusing on whole exome and genome sequencing in pediatrics, and changed its name to GeneDx. In 2025 GeneDx was named one of Fast Company's Most Innovative Companies, ranked No.2 in the Biotech category. The recognition highlighted the company's work in advancing genomic sequencing and data-driven approaches to improve rare disease diagnosis. GeneDx settled a patent dispute with Myriad Genetics in February 2015 after GeneDx launched a BRCA mutation breast cancer genetic screening test following the US Supreme Court decision in Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc. that concluded isolated gene sequences were patent ineligible.
The byproduct N,N'-dicyclohexylurea is mostly removed by filtration, but trace impurities can be difficult to remove. It is incompatible with traditional solid-phase peptide synthesis. DCC is a potent allergen, and repeated contact with skin increases the probability of sensitization to the compound. Clinical reports of individuals who cannot enter rooms where peptide coupling agents are used have been reported.
=== Statins === Statin medications are widely prescribed for treating atherosclerosis. They have shown benefit in reducing cardiovascular disease and mortality in those with high cholesterol with few side effects. Secondary prevention therapy, which includes high-intensity statins and aspirin, is recommended by multi-society guidelines for all patients with a history of ASCVD (atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease) to prevent the recurrence of coronary artery disease, ischemic stroke, or peripheral arterial disease. However, prescription of and adherence to these guideline-concordant therapies is lacking, particularly among young patients and women. Statins work by inhibiting HMG-CoA (hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A) reductase, a hepatic rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol's biochemical production pathway. Inhibiting this rate-limiting enzyme reduces the body's ability to produce cholesterol endogenously, thereby reducing LDL-cholesterol levels in the blood. This reduced endogenous cholesterol production triggers the body to pull cholesterol from other cellular sources, enhancing serum HDL-cholesterol. These data are primarily in middle-aged men; the conclusions are less clear for women or for people over the age of 70.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== External links == Cartilage.org, International Cartilage Regeneration & Joint Preservation Society KUMC.edu Archived 2011-04-08 at the Wayback Machine, Cartilage tutorial, University of Kansas Medical Center Bartleby.com, text from Gray's anatomy MadSci.org, I've heard 'Ears and nose do not ever stop growing.' Is this false? CartilageHealth.com, Information on Articular Cartilage Injury Prevention, Repair and Rehabilitation About.com Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine, Osteoarthritis Cartilage types[link removed] Different cartilages on TheFreeDictionary Cartilage photomicrographs
== Stages == Hemostasis (blood clotting): Within the first few minutes of injury, platelets in the blood begin to stick to the injured site. They change into an amorphous shape, more suitable for clotting, and they release chemical signals to promote clotting. This results in the activation of fibrin, which forms a mesh and acts as "glue" to bind platelets to each other. This makes a clot that serves to plug the break in the blood vessel, slowing/preventing further bleeding. Inflammation: During this phase, damaged and dead cells are cleared out, along with bacteria and other pathogens or debris. This happens through the process of phagocytosis, where white blood cells engulf debris and destroy it. Platelet-derived growth factors are released into the wound that cause the migration and division of cells during the proliferative phase. Proliferation (growth of new tissue): In this phase, angiogenesis, collagen deposition, granulation tissue formation, epithelialization, and wound contraction occur. In angiogenesis, vascular endothelial cells form new blood vessels. In fibroplasia and granulation tissue formation, fibroblasts grow and form a new, provisional extracellular matrix (ECM) by excreting collagen and fibronectin. Concurrently, re-epithelialization of the epidermis occurs, in which epithelial cells proliferate and 'crawl' atop the wound bed, providing cover for the new tissue. In wound contraction, myofibroblasts decrease the size of the wound by gripping the wound edges and contracting using a mechanism that resembles that in smooth muscle cells.
Plastic casings are not eaten. They also can be flat or shirred. Generally, smoke and water cannot pass through the casing, so plastic is used for non-smoked products where high yields are expected. The inner surface can be laminated or co-extruded with a polymer with an affinity for meat protein causing the meat to stick to the film, resulting in some loss when the casing is peeled, but higher overall yield due to better moisture control. Plastic casings are generally made from polymers such as polyamide, polypropylene, or polyethylene. Polyamide (Nylon) plastic casings are the most commonly used in production of cooked sausages and hams such as luncheon meat and bologna. Polyamide casings come in two main varieties: Oriented and non-oriented. The oriented polyamide are shrinkable casings and will shrink during the cooking process thereby reducing the water loss. Non-oriented polyamide casings remain the same diameter during the cooking process and thereby allow for expansion of the meat during cooking. The use of polyamide casings has expanded recently with the advent of various varieties and structures of casings such as multilayer casings.
The melting point was calculated as 284 ± 50 K (11 ± 50 °C), so that flerovium is probably a liquid at room temperature, although the boiling point was not determined. The electron of a hydrogen-like flerovium ion (Fl113+; remove all but one electron) is expected to move so fast that its mass is 1.79 times that of a stationary electron, due to relativistic effects. (The figures for hydrogen-like lead and tin are expected to be 1.25 and 1.073 respectively.) Flerovium would form weaker metal–metal bonds than lead and would be adsorbed less on surfaces.
Russell and Norvig agree with Turing that intelligence must be defined in terms of external behaviour, not internal structure. However, they are critical that the test requires the machine to imitate humans. "Aeronautical engineering texts", they wrote, "do not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that fly so exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons.'" AI founder John McCarthy agreed, writing that "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence". McCarthy defines intelligence as "the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world". Another AI founder, Marvin Minsky, similarly describes it as "the ability to solve hard problems". Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach defines it as the study of agents that perceive their environment and take actions that maximise their chances of achieving defined goals. The many differing definitions of AI have been critically analysed. During the 2020s AI boom, the term has been used as a marketing buzzword to promote products and services which do not use AI.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Major drug regulators have not approved GW501516 for treating any medical condition. Products sold as cardarine are typically unapproved research chemicals or supplements, so their contents and safety are not assured.
It is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency as a hormone and metabolic modulator. Athletes who test positive for GW501516 can face sanctions, including suspensions and loss of results.
Cardarine is a common or trade-style name, while GW501516 is the research code for the same chemical entity. Some sources also use Endurobol or GSK-516. The names refer to the same compound, not distinct drugs.
No. Cardarine is GW501516, a PPARδ agonist, while SARMs act on androgen receptors. The two classes are often grouped in informal discussions despite different mechanisms.