Everything below concerns fatty acid oxidation. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2025-10-19. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Sporting authorities added GW501516 to prohibited lists after it appeared in athlete samples and online markets. The World Anti-Doping Agency classifies it as a hormone and metabolic modulator, and its use can lead to an anti-doping rule violation. Some early laboratory work suggested effects on fatty acid oxidation and endurance-related metabolism in animals, but those findings do not establish safe or effective use in people. Reports of adverse events in humans are scarce and often anecdotal, which complicates risk assessment.
Legal status varies by country. In some places, cardarine is controlled under medicines or psychoactive substances laws; in others, it may be sold with minimal oversight as a research chemical. Customs agencies have intercepted shipments, and several national health agencies have issued warnings about products marketed for bodybuilding or performance enhancement. The lack of a standardized pharmaceutical supply means identity, purity, and contamination levels can differ widely between samples. These factors make cardarine a regulatory and public health concern rather than a conventional prescription drug.
Handling and quality assessment of cardarine reference material follow general laboratory practices for poorly characterized compounds. It typically appears as a white to off-white powder and is sparingly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide and ethanol. Storage recommendations usually specify a cool, dry, dark place, with long-term storage at low temperature and desiccation. Purity may be checked by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, while identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. No pharmacopeial monograph exists, so reported purity and stability depend on the supplier’s methods.
GW501516 acts as a selective agonist at PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in lipid handling and energy metabolism. Activation of PPARδ in preclinical models increases fatty acid oxidation, mitochondrial biogenesis, and exercise endurance in rodents. These effects have made the compound a subject of metabolic research and also a target for sport anti-doping rules. In humans, however, controlled studies are limited, and whether similar endurance or metabolic changes occur at tolerated exposures remains an open question. The receptor’s broad tissue distribution also means downstream effects may vary by organ and condition.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| IUPAC name | {4-[({4-methyl-2-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-1,3-thiazol-5-yl}methyl)sulfanyl]phenoxy}acetic acid | Systematic name for GW501516 |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Unique identifier for the parent compound |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Includes carbon, hydrogen, fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur |
| Molecular weight | 453.5 g/mol | Approximate value for the neutral form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical description for purified laboratory material |
Published human data are sparse and mostly come from early-phase trials. Those studies examined short-term changes in lipids, glucose, and exercise capacity, but they were not large enough to establish efficacy or long-term safety. Some animal experiments reported increased running endurance, yet such findings do not prove a performance benefit in people. Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites in urine or blood using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Detection windows depend on dose, sample type, and individual metabolism. The method is sensitive enough to identify trace residues in tested samples.
Laboratory handling focuses on identity, purity, and stability. Reference standards are typically stored cold and dry, protected from light, because solutions can degrade over time. Analytical checks may use high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection or mass spectrometry. Impurities and related substances can be separated chromatographically and compared with a known standard. Because cardarine is not an approved drug, compendial monographs are absent, and laboratories often rely on in-house methods. Reported purity varies among unregulated products and should not be assumed from a label.
In laboratory settings, cardarine is studied as a tool compound for probing PPARδ biology. Published experiments often use cell cultures, rodent models, or isolated tissues. Some investigations focus on metabolic effects, while others assess potential risks such as carcinogenicity observed in long-term animal studies. Because human trials are sparse, most knowledge comes from preclinical work and adverse event reports. Scientific literature frequently notes the gap between animal findings and human outcomes. The compound is not a dietary supplement and is not intended for human consumption.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound developed in the 1990s through research collaborations involving GlaxoSmithKline. It belongs to a class of molecules known as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonists. Early studies explored its effects on lipid metabolism and energy expenditure in animal models. The compound was never approved as a human medicine, and clinical development was discontinued. In the years since, it has appeared in fitness and bodybuilding communities as a performance-enhancing substance. Regulatory agencies classify it as an unapproved drug.
Preclinical research reported that GW501516 increased running endurance in mice and improved lipid profiles in some animal species. Early human trials explored effects on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose handling, but the program was discontinued. Published human data are sparse and do not establish efficacy for any condition. Studies also examined PPAR delta in cancer biology, with conflicting findings across models. The relationship between receptor activation, tissue context, and disease risk remains an active area of investigation.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the usual matrix, and detection can occur after the parent compound has cleared from blood. The exact detection window depends on dose, formulation, individual metabolism, and assay sensitivity. Because the compound is prohibited at all times, athletes are subject to testing in and out of competition. Analytical methods continue to improve as new metabolites and designer analogs are characterized.
Type 2 diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance, which may be combined with relatively reduced insulin secretion. The defective responsiveness of body tissues to insulin is believed to involve the insulin receptor. However, the specific defects are not known. Diabetes mellitus cases due to a known defect are classified separately. Type 2 diabetes is the most common type of diabetes mellitus, accounting for 95% of diabetes. Many people with type 2 diabetes have evidence of prediabetes (impaired fasting glucose and/or impaired glucose tolerance) before meeting the criteria for type 2 diabetes. The progression of prediabetes to overt type 2 diabetes can be slowed or reversed by lifestyle changes or medications that improve insulin sensitivity or reduce the liver's glucose production. Type 2 diabetes is primarily due to lifestyle factors and genetics. A number of lifestyle factors are known to be important to the development of type 2 diabetes, including obesity (defined by a body mass index of greater than 30), lack of physical activity, poor diet such as Western Pattern Diet, and stress. Excess body fat is associated with 30% of cases in people of Chinese and Japanese descent, 60–80% of cases in those of European and African descent, and 100% of Pima Indians and Pacific Islanders. Even those who are not obese may have a high waist–hip ratio. Dietary factors such as sugar-sweetened drinks are associated with an increased risk.
== History and production == Its industrial production was developed in Italy by Antonio Carpenè in collaboration with Enrico Comboni. Originally it was separated directly from the red wine (in which it is present for approximately 1% of the total) by precipitating it with basic lead acetate and obtaining a dark blue substance. Today, enocyanin is obtained from the peels of black grapes rich in anthocyanins (Italian cultivars "Ancellotta", "Colorino", "Sangiovese", "Lambrusco") by extraction in acidified water (often with citric or tartaric acid) at medium temperature (30–50°C) so as not to degrade the anthocyanins, sometimes with the addition of food-grade ethanol to improve yield and conservation. After separating the solids (seeds, fibers, and spent peels) using pressure filters or centrifugation, the extract is purified using ion exchange resins or membrane filtration, concentrated under low-temperature vacuum to preserve thermolabile compounds, and, if necessary, transformed into a powder through freeze-drying or spray-drying. The final product is stabilized with natural antioxidants and packaged in dark, airtight containers, often under an inert atmosphere. Classified as E163, enocyanin is used in the winemaking industry as a color enhancer and in the food and cosmetic industries for its intense pigmentation, excellent color stability in acidic environments, and its natural origin based on the recovery of winemaking byproducts. The starting pomace must be fresh and free of sulfur dioxide or other additives that could interfere with the extraction process.
==== New album: Criminal Migraine (2026–present) ==== On August 17, 2026, Ice-T released a new double album, Criminal Migraine, for digital download independently through his website. This is Ice's first new rap album in 20 years, since Gangsta Rap was released in 2006. The new album is not available on any streaming service and features guest appearances by Treach, Smoothe Da Hustler, CJ Mac and Ras Kass.
The most controversial of these responses by Ja Rule was leaked in April 2003 in the track Loose Change; in which Ja Rule directly attacked Eminem and Dr. Dre for their affiliation with 50 Cent, notably aiming several insults at Eminem's daughter Hailie. On Eminem's 2005 track "Like Toy Soldiers" he mentioned how he had tried to coerce 50 Cent into ending his feud with Ja Rule, until Ja Rule leaked his diss track attacking him and his daughter. Eminem and D12 quickly responded with Hailie's revenge, a diss track that was critically lauded as one of the best in the genre for its aggression and ferocity. Further attacks came in the form of other rappers such as Obie Trice and Busta Rhymes, the latter of whom joined 50 Cent and Eminem on a remake of Tupac Shakur's "Hail Mary". In the track; Eminem proclaimed a narrative that drew criticism towards Ja Rule for his supposed influence of Tupac's image to benefit himself. In another move to damage Ja Rule's contributions to other collaborative efforts, Eminem later barred him from appearing on any remixed posthumous tracks by Tupac Shakur on the 2004 album Loyal to the Game. Former D12 affiliate Royce Da 5'9 who was involved with an ongoing feud with the group; took side with Murder Inc on his diss track Malcolm X in which he attacked both D12 and G-Unit, even threatening to sign with Murder Inc. Following the release of his track, Royce later made amends with Proof of D12 following the two being arrested in connection to a nightclub fight.
== Epidemiology == According to estimates, juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) affects 1 to 4 out of every 1000 children, making it the most prevalent rheumatic illness in children. With incidence rates ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 children per 100,000 children, sJIA accounts for 10% to 20% of JIA cases. The peak age of presentation is between 1 and 5 years of age. However, children might have symptoms throughout childhood and adolescence. In contrast to other JIA subtypes, children of both genders are equally afflicted. Children from all ethnic origins develop sJIA. Japan and India have reported a somewhat higher prevalence rate than the US or Canada.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The game became a major hit, selling millions of copies. Because of this success, multiple subsequent installments were released. The first of these was Counter-Strike: Condition Zero, a single-player campaign released in 2004, which was received with mixed reviews. Counter-Strike: Source came out later that year, which ran on Valve's Source engine, offering improved visuals and physics. In 2012, Counter-Strike: Global Offensive was launched, giving the franchise new game modes and better matchmaking. Counter-Strike 2, developed in the Source 2 engine, was released in 2023 as an update to Global Offensive.
=== Intact molecular isotope ratio mass spectrometry === Conventionally, mass spectrometry, such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography -time of flight(GC-TOF), is a common technique for analyzing isotopically labeled molecules. This method involves ionizing and analyzing isotopologues of an intact organic molecule of interest rather than its products of pyrolysis or conversion. However, it does not work for natural abundance hydrogen isotopes because conventional mass spectrometers do not have enough mass-resolving power to measure the 13C/D isotopologues of intact organic molecules or molecular fragments at natural abundance. For example, to resolve the single D substituted isotopologue peak of any hydrocarbons one will have to be able to at least exclude single 13C substituted isotopologue peak, which sits at the same cardinal mass yet 0.0029 Da lighter and is of orders of magnitude more abundant. Recent advances in analytical instruments enable direct measurement of natural abundance DHRs in organic molecules. The new instruments have the same framework as any conventional gas source IRMS, but incorporate new features such as larger magnetic sector, double focusing sectors, quadrupole mass filter and multi-collectors. Two commercial examples are the Nu Panorama and the Thermo Scientific 253 Ultra. These instruments generally have good sensitivity and precision. Using only tens of nanomoles of methane, the Ultra can achieve a stable high precision of ~0.1‰ error in δD.
Although he rejected Felipe González's offer to form a broad-based parliamentary government, Calvo Sotelo agreed with the PSOE on the two most urgent issues, the "military question" and the "regional question". Regarding the former, the Socialists agreed that only 32 of the more than 200 military personnel involved in the coup would be tried and only one civilian ─ Tejero, Armada and Milans del Bosch were sentenced by the Supreme Court to the maximum penalty of thirty years in prison ─ and also supported the Law for the Defense of the Constitution aimed at preventing any new coup attempt. Regarding the "regional question", UCD and PSOE agreed on the Organic Law for the Harmonization of the Autonomous Process (in Spanish, Ley Orgánica de Armonización del Proceso Autonómico or LOAPA) aimed at "reordering" the so-called "Regional state". The government did not find the support of the PSOE in the decision to apply for Spanish membership in NATO and when it was approved in Congress on October 29, 1981, Felipe González promised that when he took power he would call a referendum on permanence.
=== Morphology === Animal cells form many different shapes based on their function and location in the body. Rho proteins help cells regulate changes in shape throughout their life-cycle. Before cells can undergo key processes such as budding, mitosis, or locomotion, it must have some manner of cell polarity. One example of Rho GTPases' role in cell polarity is seen in the much-studied yeast cell. Before the cell can bud, Cdc42 is used to locate the region of the cell's membrane that will begin to bulge into the new cell. When Cdc42 is removed from the cell, the outgrowths still form, but do so in an unorganized manner. One of the most obvious changes to cell morphology controlled by Rho proteins is the formation of lamellipodia and filopodia, projecting processes that look like "fingers" or "feet" and often propel cells or growth cones across surfaces. Virtually all eukaryotic cells form such processes upon Rho activation. Fibroblasts such as Swiss 3T3 cells are often used to study these phenomena.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Major drug regulators have not approved GW501516 for treating any medical condition. Products sold as cardarine are typically unapproved research chemicals or supplements, so their contents and safety are not assured.
It is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency as a hormone and metabolic modulator. Athletes who test positive for GW501516 can face sanctions, including suspensions and loss of results.
Cardarine is a common or trade-style name, while GW501516 is the research code for the same chemical entity. Some sources also use Endurobol or GSK-516. The names refer to the same compound, not distinct drugs.
Cardarine targets PPARδ, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. It does not bind the androgen receptor in the way SARMs do.